Introduction
This
paper contains the results of my resume
about Uses and Gratification Theory, Agenda Setting Theory, Content
Analysis, Polling, Rating Research and Communication Network. I wrote about the
definition, the goal and how to make research from the theory and the example. And
I add the new task from lecture about validity and rebility i tried to make
definition and example. The purpose of this paper to correct past mistakes of
my task.
1.
Uses and Gratification Theory
Uses
and gratification theory is basically the audience using the mass media based
on certain motives. Model Uses and Gratification This suggests that the main
problem is not how to change the attitudes and behavior of media audiences, but
how the media fulfill personal and social needs of the audience (Uchjana, 1993:
289-290). Blummer
and Michael Gurevitch is researching the origins of the psychological and
social needs, which raises certain expectations of the media or other sources,
which led to patterns of media exposure different and lead to fulfillment and
other consequences as well that perhaps we do not want.
Uses and
gratification theory relates to media exposure or exposure to the media,
because it refers to the use of media activities Exposure (Kriyantono, 2006) is
an activity to hearing, seeing, and catch mass media message or have an
experience and concern to the message which happen on individual or group. Media exposure
with regard to how many people saw the program aired sector in the media.
(Bovee and Arens ,p.192, p.445 in Kriyantono 2006) Typically the constraints in
the media exposure is, only the number of persons of overall viewers, listeners
or readers are pleased to see or hear the content of any message. Often someone
read only one article in the magazine and then never read again and skip pages
with ads. Similarly, the advertising on TV, chances are erring time there are
such people were watching a news, when the advertising began people tend to
move another channel or leave it.
Most research focuses on the uses and gratification media. palmgreen
although also using the same basis that the use of the media is driven by
certain motives, but the concepts are studied by this Palmgreen more does not
stop there, by asking whether the motives of the audience can be met by the media.
in other words whether the audience satisfied using the media. According to
expectancy theory, the direct themselves to the world based on trust and their
evaluation of the world. Sought Gratification is sought or desired satisfaction
of individuals when consuming a particular media type. Sought is gratification
motives that drives a person to consume media. While Obtained gratification is
a real satisfaction derived someone after eating a particular type of media
(Palmgreen, 1985, p.27 in Kriyantono 2006). In other words, according
palmgreen, formed Sought gratification of one's belief about media content.
(Presentation Kriyantono 2014)
2.
Agenda Setting Theory
Agenda
Setting theory has an assumption that media has an ability to transfer an
issues to influence public agenda. Audience assumed some issues are important
because media assumes that issues important (Griffin, 2003:490 in
Kriyantono 2006, p.204). First,
agenda-setting research has rapidly expanded beyond its original theoretical
domain, the interface of the mass media agenda and the public agenda. The
opening phase was marked by the publication of McCombs and Shaw’s original
research in 1972 (Shaw & McCombs, 1993).
So it can be said that the media has the power to
influence public opinion. What is deemed important by the media is also
considered important by the public. For example, on vacation Syahrini using
private jets. Media entertainment exposing all out on the issue. Yet at that
time suppose KPK arrested a new suspect in the case Hambalang. In terms of the
value of the news of the arrest of a suspect case KPK is far more important,
but what actually media lifted was luxurious life of Syahrini was also made the
society consider that’s important.
If the
uses & gratification said
public
have a control to consume the media, vice versa with agenda setting theory said media has a control over the public
opinion.
Agenda
Setting Model
Stephen W Littlejohn
& Karren Foss (2005, p 280 in Kriyantono,
2006, p.225)
cited on Rogers & Dearing, agenda setting theory function is a linear
process which consist three parts:
1.
Agenda
Media is arranged by media itself
2.
In
some ways, agenda media influence or interact with public agenda or public
instinct towards the importance issues which influence Agenda Policy.
3.
Agenda
Policy is what policy public makers think and importance private or public
policy making which public assumes it important.
Werner Severin & James W.
Tankard in Communication Theories, Origins, Methods, Uses in the Mass Media
(2005) (in Kriyantono, 2006,p.226) deliver three agenda dimensions:
1.
Agenda
Media
a.
Visibility,
the number and level of prominence news
b.
Salience
audience, relevance between media content and audiences need
c.
Valence,
pleasure or unpleasure way of reporting an event.
2.
Public
Agenda
a.
Familiarity,
degree of public awareness towards certain issues
b.
Personal
salience, relevance between individual needs with personal characteristic
c.
Favorability,
consideration pleasure or unpleasure about news topic.
3.
Agenda
Policy
a.
Support,
pleasure activity for some position in certain issues
b.
Likelihood
of action, probability of government implement what is likened
c.
Freedom
of action, activity value which probably government will implement
3.
Rating Research
The rating is a measure of the digubakan research to count the number of
audience in the electronic media. If the rating of the print media in views of
how much the audience buy prints them. This research will generate a lot of
information to electronic media such as TV and radio. so ratings can see how
often heard and watched the show and at what most people watch TV.
In Kriyantono 2006 there are several methods of measuring rating (audience
size) yes g introduced AC Nielsen:
a. Audimeter
A modern tool in surveying the behavior of watching TV and listening to
radio audiences. The tool is called Electronic Ratings Gathering Instrument or
commonly known as Nielsen Audimeter.
b. Channel Diaries
So this method asks the audience to fill or recording media activities they
do in a diary. DayPart is a segment broadcast broadcasting as primr time
c. Phone interviews
Sample was asked to provide information whether any family members who see
or listen to the radio.
d. People Meter
People meter is manually controlled device and larger than the typical TV
channel, which has 8 keys to his family and two additional buttons for guests.
4.
Content Anylisis
5.
Polling
Polls can provide great insight for
decision makers, but understanding how to design and use them is critical to
maximizing their usefulness. The process of polling is often mysterious,
particularly to those who don’t see how the views of 1,000 people can represent
an entire population. It is first and foremost crucial to remember that polls
are not trying to reflect individuals’ thinking in all their complexity;
all they are trying to do is estimate how the population would respond to a
series of closed-ended options, such as, “should tax cuts or new spending be a
higher priority?” (Mendelshon and Brent,2001,p.131).
a.
The sampling
process
The basic principle of polling is that a sample of a population can represent
the whole of that population if the sample is sufficiently large (the larger
the sample, the more likely it is to accurately represent the population) and
is generated through a method that ensures that the sample is random. The
random sample—one in which everyone in the target population has an equal
probability of being selected is the basis of probability sampling and the
fundamental principle for survey research. Beyond a certain minimum number, the
actual number of respondents interviewed isless important to the accuracy of a
poll than the process by which a random probability sample is generated.
b.
Understanding
error: margin and otherwise
We have all heard poll results in news stories described as being,
“accurate to plus or minus three percentage points, 19 times out of 20,” but
what does this mean? This statement, and the figures that it contains, refers
to the “sampling error” (3%) and “confidence interval” (95%, or 19 out of 20)
of the poll that has been taken. This means that 95 percent of all samples
taken from the same population using the same question at the same time will be
+/- the sampling error (usually referred to as the “margin of error”).
The reported margin of error assumes two
things: that the sample was properly collected (and therefore represents the
cross-section of the target population), and that thequestions are properly
designed and in fact measure the underlying concepts that are of interest. If
either of these two assumptions is violated, the margin of error underestimates
the real difference between the survey results and what the population
“thinks.” The reporting of the margin of error may therefore create an aura of
precision about the results that is in fact lacking. If the sample is not truly
random, or the questions are poorly worded, then the margin of error
underestimates the degree of uncertainty in the results.
We usually think of polls as “opinion polls,” but “opinions” are only one
of four measurables. Polls can also measure behaviour, knowledge and
socio-demographic characteristics. For these items, the questions themselves
are often easier to formulate and less prone to debate. To find out whether respondents
voted, know about changes to a government program, or whether they were born in
Canada, the question is usually fairly straightforward; how to construct an
opinion question properly, on the other hand, is often highly contentious.
When properly conducted, polls can be extraordinarily useful tools, but one
must first articulate clearly what one wants to know, and then take the
necessary time to formulate good questions. If used carelessly, polls can
easily become little more than crutches for those who refuse to think
creatively or rigorously about tough issues. It is also important to keep in
mind that there are many other credible manifestations of public opinion than
general population polls. The views of interest groups, of the media or elites are
often equally or more relevant when addressing some questions. On issues of
specialized knowledge, in particular, it might be more useful to consult
credible representatives of groups or the informed public than the general
population. The following 10 relatively simple questions can help anyone assess
a particular poll. (Mendelshon and Brent,2001,p.136).
1. Have the exact questions in the poll been asked in the past and what
were the results?
2. Have similar questions been asked
recently and what were the results?
3. What type of poll is it (omnibus,
commissioned, academic)?
4. What were the exact dates of polling?
5. Who conducted the poll, for whom, and
for what purpose?
6. What were the exact question wordings?
7. What was the order of questions?
8. How were undecideds treated?
9. What was the response rate?
10. Is this really something the public has views about?
6.
Communication Network
Communication
network analysis aims to determine how the flow of information flowing
patterned in individuals on a system. Usually used in the flow of information
that are innovative, that idea, ideas, goods that are new for certain people.
This analysis can be applied to berbagaibidang communication. We can research
the communication network in the socialization of family planning programs
disebuah territory or network communications on the diffusion of information
about the elections in several villages, and so on. The bias network analysis
is used in the diffusion-inivasion research. According to Kriyantono:2006, p.322
Practical Techniques of Communication Research
Thus, the main concept in network analysis is information. Communication
network consists of individuals who are connected to each other by the patterns
of information flow. Information can be defined as follows:
a. Facts or data obtained during the act of
communication takes place which is a physical quantity that can be moved from
one point to another. For example, the more a person watching TV more and more
information is obtained (switching from TV to someone earlier).
b. A number of uncertainties which can be
measured by reducing the number of alternative options available
c. Something that is used to reduce the
uncertainty will be something.
Validity
According to Anwar (1986) Validity of validity, which comes from the word
has meaning the extent to which the precision and accuracy of a measuring
instrument to perform the function of measuring. A scale or measuring
instrument can be said to have high validity if the instrument is measuring
function, or provide measurement results in accordance with the purpose of the
measurements done. While tests have low validity will generate data that are not
relevant to the purpose of measurement.
Contained herein validity in the sense that the accuracy of a measuring
instrument depends on the ability of the gauge reaches the desired destination
with the right measurements. A test intended to measure the variables A and
then provide the results of the measurement of the variables A, said to be a
measuring instrument which has a high validity. A test intended to measure the
variable A will also produce data on the variables A 'or even B, said to be a
measuring instrument that has low validity for measuring the variables A and
high validity for measuring the variables A' or B (Anwar 1986).
Reability
Reliability is an index that indicates the
extent to which a measuring instrument is reliable or unreliable. If a
measuring device is used twice - to measure the same symptoms and the results
of measurements obtained relatively consistent, then it is a reliable gauge. In
other words, realibitas shows the consistency of a gauge in measuring the same
phenomenon.
Reliability, or reliability, is the
consistency of a set of measurements or series of measuring devices. It could
be a measurement of the same measuring instrument (test with retest) will give
the same results, or for a more subjective measurement, whether the two
assessors give similar scores (inter-rater reliability). Reliability is not the
same as the validity. This means that a reliable measurement will measure consistently,
but not necessarily measure what should be measured.
In the study, the reliability is the extent to which the measurement of a
test remains consistent after repeated on the subject and in the same
condition. The study is considered reliable when it provides consistent results
for the same measurement. Unreliable when measurements were repeated it gives
different results.
Bibliography:
Kriyantono, Rachmat. 2006. Teknik
praktis Riset Komunikasi. Jakarta: Kencana Prenada Media Group.
Shaw, D., & McCombs,’M.1993.
The Evolution of
Agenda-SettingResearch: Twenty-Five Years in the Marketplace of Ideas. Journal
of Communication 43(2 p.59 ).
Onong uchjana
Effendy, Ilmu,Teori dan
Filsafat Komunikasi(Bandung: PT. Citra Aditya Bakti, 1993)H.289-290
Mendhelsen, Mathew and
Brant.2001. Understanding Polling Methodology. (www.isuma.net) 5 Maret 2015 05.00 A.M
