Quantitative Methodology Research: Uses and Gratification Theory, Agenda Setting Theory, Content Analysis, Polling, Rating Research, Communication Network, Validity and Reability

Introduction

This paper contains the results of my resume about Uses and Gratification Theory, Agenda Setting Theory, Content Analysis, Polling, Rating Research and Communication Network. I wrote about the definition, the goal and how to make research from the theory and the example. And I add the new task from lecture about validity and rebility i tried to make definition and example. The purpose of this paper to correct past mistakes of my task.

1.       Uses and Gratification Theory

Uses and gratification theory is basically the audience using the mass media based on certain motives. Model Uses and Gratification This suggests that the main problem is not how to change the attitudes and behavior of media audiences, but how the media fulfill personal and social needs of the audience (Uchjana, 1993: 289-290). Blummer and Michael Gurevitch is researching the origins of the psychological and social needs, which raises certain expectations of the media or other sources, which led to patterns of media exposure different and lead to fulfillment and other consequences as well that perhaps we do not want.

Uses and gratification theory relates to media exposure or exposure to the media, because it refers to the use of media activities Exposure (Kriyantono, 2006) is an activity to hearing, seeing, and catch mass media message or have an experience and concern to the message which happen on individual or group. Media exposure with regard to how many people saw the program aired sector in the media. (Bovee and Arens ,p.192, p.445 in Kriyantono 2006) Typically the constraints in the media exposure is, only the number of persons of overall viewers, listeners or readers are pleased to see or hear the content of any message. Often someone read only one article in the magazine and then never read again and skip pages with ads. Similarly, the advertising on TV, chances are erring time there are such people were watching a news, when the advertising began people tend to move another channel or leave it.

Most research focuses on the uses and gratification media. palmgreen although also using the same basis that the use of the media is driven by certain motives, but the concepts are studied by this Palmgreen more does not stop there, by asking whether the motives of the audience can be met by the media. in other words whether the audience satisfied using the media. According to expectancy theory, the direct themselves to the world based on trust and their evaluation of the world. Sought Gratification is sought or desired satisfaction of individuals when consuming a particular media type. Sought is gratification motives that drives a person to consume media. While Obtained gratification is a real satisfaction derived someone after eating a particular type of media (Palmgreen, 1985, p.27 in Kriyantono 2006). In other words, according palmgreen, formed Sought gratification of one's belief about media content.

 

(Presentation Kriyantono 2014)

2.       Agenda Setting Theory

Agenda Setting theory has an assumption that media has an ability to transfer an issues to influence public agenda. Audience assumed some issues are important because media assumes that issues important (Griffin, 2003:490 in Kriyantono 2006, p.204). First, agenda-setting research has rapidly expanded beyond its original theoretical domain, the interface of the mass media agenda and the public agenda. The opening phase was marked by the publication of McCombs and Shaw’s original research in 1972 (Shaw & McCombs, 1993).

So it can be said that the media has the power to influence public opinion. What is deemed important by the media is also considered important by the public. For example, on vacation Syahrini using private jets. Media entertainment exposing all out on the issue. Yet at that time suppose KPK arrested a new suspect in the case Hambalang. In terms of the value of the news of the arrest of a suspect case KPK is far more important, but what actually media lifted was luxurious life of Syahrini was also made the society consider that’s important.

If the uses & gratification said public have a control to consume the media, vice versa with agenda setting theory said media has a control over the public opinion.

Agenda Setting Model

Stephen W Littlejohn & Karren Foss (2005, p 280 in Kriyantono, 2006, p.225) cited on Rogers & Dearing, agenda setting theory function is a linear process which consist three parts:

1.       Agenda Media is arranged by media itself

2.       In some ways, agenda media influence or interact with public agenda or public instinct towards the importance issues which influence Agenda Policy.

3.       Agenda Policy is what policy public makers think and importance private or public policy making which public assumes it important.

Werner Severin & James W. Tankard in Communication Theories, Origins, Methods, Uses in the Mass Media (2005) (in Kriyantono, 2006,p.226) deliver three agenda dimensions:

1.       Agenda Media

a.       Visibility, the number and level of prominence news

b.       Salience audience, relevance between media content and audiences need

c.       Valence, pleasure or unpleasure way of reporting an event.

2.       Public Agenda

a.       Familiarity, degree of public awareness towards certain issues

b.       Personal salience, relevance between individual needs with personal characteristic

c.       Favorability, consideration pleasure or unpleasure about news topic.

3.       Agenda Policy

a.       Support, pleasure activity for some position in certain issues

b.       Likelihood of action, probability of government implement what is likened

c.       Freedom of action, activity value which probably government will implement

3.       Rating Research

The rating is a measure of the digubakan research to count the number of audience in the electronic media. If the rating of the print media in views of how much the audience buy prints them. This research will generate a lot of information to electronic media such as TV and radio. so ratings can see how often heard and watched the show and at what most people watch TV.

In Kriyantono 2006 there are several methods of measuring rating (audience size) yes g introduced AC Nielsen:

a. Audimeter

A modern tool in surveying the behavior of watching TV and listening to radio audiences. The tool is called Electronic Ratings Gathering Instrument or commonly known as Nielsen Audimeter.

b. Channel Diaries

So this method asks the audience to fill or recording media activities they do in a diary. DayPart is a segment broadcast broadcasting as primr time

c. Phone interviews

Sample was asked to provide information whether any family members who see or listen to the radio.

d. People Meter

People meter is manually controlled device and larger than the typical TV channel, which has 8 keys to his family and two additional buttons for guests.

4.       Content Anylisis

5.       Polling

Polls can provide great insight for decision makers, but understanding how to design and use them is critical to maximizing their usefulness. The process of polling is often mysterious, particularly to those who don’t see how the views of 1,000 people can represent an entire population. It is first and foremost crucial to remember that polls are not trying to reflect individuals’ thinking in all their complexity; all they are trying to do is estimate how the population would respond to a series of closed-ended options, such as, “should tax cuts or new spending be a higher priority?” (Mendelshon  and Brent,2001,p.131).

a.    The sampling process

The basic principle of polling is that a sample of a population can represent the whole of that population if the sample is sufficiently large (the larger the sample, the more likely it is to accurately represent the population) and is generated through a method that ensures that the sample is random. The random sample—one in which everyone in the target population has an equal probability of being selected is the basis of probability sampling and the fundamental principle for survey research. Beyond a certain minimum number, the actual number of respondents interviewed isless important to the accuracy of a poll than the process by which a random probability sample is generated.

b.    Understanding error: margin and otherwise

We have all heard poll results in news stories described as being, “accurate to plus or minus three percentage points, 19 times out of 20,” but what does this mean? This statement, and the figures that it contains, refers to the “sampling error” (3%) and “confidence interval” (95%, or 19 out of 20) of the poll that has been taken. This means that 95 percent of all samples taken from the same population using the same question at the same time will be +/- the sampling error (usually referred to as the “margin of error”).

The reported margin of error assumes two things: that the sample was properly collected (and therefore represents the cross-section of the target population), and that thequestions are properly designed and in fact measure the underlying concepts that are of interest. If either of these two assumptions is violated, the margin of error underestimates the real difference between the survey results and what the population “thinks.” The reporting of the margin of error may therefore create an aura of precision about the results that is in fact lacking. If the sample is not truly random, or the questions are poorly worded, then the margin of error underestimates the degree of uncertainty in the results.

We usually think of polls as “opinion polls,” but “opinions” are only one of four measurables. Polls can also measure behaviour, knowledge and socio-demographic characteristics. For these items, the questions themselves are often easier to formulate and less prone to debate. To find out whether respondents voted, know about changes to a government program, or whether they were born in Canada, the question is usually fairly straightforward; how to construct an opinion question properly, on the other hand, is often highly contentious.

When properly conducted, polls can be extraordinarily useful tools, but one must first articulate clearly what one wants to know, and then take the necessary time to formulate good questions. If used carelessly, polls can easily become little more than crutches for those who refuse to think creatively or rigorously about tough issues. It is also important to keep in mind that there are many other credible manifestations of public opinion than general population polls. The views of interest groups, of the media or elites are often equally or more relevant when addressing some questions. On issues of specialized knowledge, in particular, it might be more useful to consult credible representatives of groups or the informed public than the general population. The following 10 relatively simple questions can help anyone assess a particular poll. (Mendelshon  and Brent,2001,p.136).

1. Have the exact questions in the poll been asked in the past and what were the results?

2. Have similar questions been asked recently and what were the results?

3. What type of poll is it (omnibus, commissioned, academic)?

4. What were the exact dates of polling?

5. Who conducted the poll, for whom, and for what purpose?

6. What were the exact question wordings?

7. What was the order of questions?

8. How were undecideds treated?

9. What was the response rate?

10. Is this really something the public has views about?

6.       Communication Network

Communication network analysis aims to determine how the flow of information flowing patterned in individuals on a system. Usually used in the flow of information that are innovative, that idea, ideas, goods that are new for certain people. This analysis can be applied to berbagaibidang communication. We can research the communication network in the socialization of family planning programs disebuah territory or network communications on the diffusion of information about the elections in several villages, and so on. The bias network analysis is used in the diffusion-inivasion research. According to Kriyantono:2006, p.322 Practical Techniques of Communication Research

 

Thus, the main concept in network analysis is information. Communication network consists of individuals who are connected to each other by the patterns of information flow. Information can be defined as follows:

a. Facts or data obtained during the act of communication takes place which is a physical quantity that can be moved from one point to another. For example, the more a person watching TV more and more information is obtained (switching from TV to someone earlier).

b. A number of uncertainties which can be measured by reducing the number of alternative options available

c. Something that is used to reduce the uncertainty will be something.

Validity

According to Anwar (1986) Validity of validity, which comes from the word has meaning the extent to which the precision and accuracy of a measuring instrument to perform the function of measuring. A scale or measuring instrument can be said to have high validity if the instrument is measuring function, or provide measurement results in accordance with the purpose of the measurements done. While tests have low validity will generate data that are not relevant to the purpose of measurement.

Contained herein validity in the sense that the accuracy of a measuring instrument depends on the ability of the gauge reaches the desired destination with the right measurements. A test intended to measure the variables A and then provide the results of the measurement of the variables A, said to be a measuring instrument which has a high validity. A test intended to measure the variable A will also produce data on the variables A 'or even B, said to be a measuring instrument that has low validity for measuring the variables A and high validity for measuring the variables A' or B (Anwar 1986).

Reability

Reliability is an index that indicates the extent to which a measuring instrument is reliable or unreliable. If a measuring device is used twice - to measure the same symptoms and the results of measurements obtained relatively consistent, then it is a reliable gauge. In other words, realibitas shows the consistency of a gauge in measuring the same phenomenon.

Reliability, or reliability, is the consistency of a set of measurements or series of measuring devices. It could be a measurement of the same measuring instrument (test with retest) will give the same results, or for a more subjective measurement, whether the two assessors give similar scores (inter-rater reliability). Reliability is not the same as the validity. This means that a reliable measurement will measure consistently, but not necessarily measure what should be measured.

In the study, the reliability is the extent to which the measurement of a test remains consistent after repeated on the subject and in the same condition. The study is considered reliable when it provides consistent results for the same measurement. Unreliable when measurements were repeated it gives different results.

Bibliography:

Kriyantono, Rachmat. 2006. Teknik praktis Riset Komunikasi. Jakarta: Kencana Prenada Media Group.

Shaw, D., & McCombs,’M.1993. The Evolution of Agenda-SettingResearch: Twenty-Five Years in the Marketplace of Ideas. Journal of Communication 43(2 p.59 ).

Onong uchjana Effendy, Ilmu,Teori dan Filsafat Komunikasi(Bandung: PT. Citra Aditya Bakti, 1993)H.289-290

Mendhelsen, Mathew and Brant.2001. Understanding Polling Methodology. (www.isuma.net) 5 Maret 2015 05.00 A.M